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state in East Asia
country in East Asia

China ( taiwanese : 中国 ; pinyin : Zhōngguó ), officially the People’s Republic of China ( PRC ; chinese : 中华人民共和国 ; pinyin : Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó ), is a country in East Asia. It is the earth ‘s most populous area, with a population of more than 1.4 billion. China spans five geographic clock zones and borders 14 different countries, the second most of any state in the world after Russia. Covering an area of approximately 9.6 million square kilometres ( 3.7 million mi2 ), it is the worldly concern ‘s third base or one-fourth largest state. [ one ] The country consists of 23 provinces, [ j ] four municipalities, five autonomous regions, and two special administrative Regions ( Hong Kong and Macau ). The national capital is Beijing, and its fiscal kernel is Shanghai, with Shenzhen widely considered a kernel for technical invention.

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China emerged as one of the earth ‘s foremost civilisations in the prolific washbasin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. China was one of the populace ‘s foremost economic powers for most of the two millennium from the 1st until the nineteenth hundred. For millennium, China ‘s political system was based on absolute ancestral monarchies, or dynasties, beginning with the semi-legendary Xia dynasty in twenty-first hundred BCE. Since then, China has expanded, fractured, and re-unified numerous times. In the third hundred BCE, the Qin reunited effect China and established the first gear chinese empire. The succeeding Han dynasty ( 206 BCE – 220 CE ) saw some of the most advanced engineering at that meter, including papermaking and the compass, along with agrarian and aesculapian improvements. The invention of gunpowder and movable type in the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) and Northern Song Dynasty ( 960 – 1127 ) completed the Four Great Inventions. Tang culture spread wide in Asia, as the fresh Silk Road brought traders to ampere far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa. The Qing Empire, China ‘s concluding dynasty, which formed the territorial footing for modern China, suffered heavy losses to extraneous imperialism. The taiwanese monarchy collapsed in 1912 with the 1911 Revolution, when the Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the Qing dynasty. China was invaded by the Empire of Japan during World War II. The Civil War resulted in a division of territory in 1949 when the Communist Party ( CCP ) established the People ‘s Republic of China on the mainland while the Kuomintang -led ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. [ potassium ] Both claim to be the sole lawful politics of China, although the United Nations has recognized the PRC as the lone representation since 1971. China conducted a serial of economic reforms since 1978, and entered into the World Trade Organization in 2001. China is presently governed as a unitary one-party socialist republic by the CCP. China is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and a establish member of several multilateral and regional cooperation organizations such as the asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, the Silk Road Fund, the New Development Bank, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, and the RCEP, and is a member of the BRICS, the G8+5, the G20, the APEC, and the East Asia Summit. It ranks among the lowest in external measurements of civil liberties, government transparency, freedom of the press, exemption of religion and ethnic minorities. chinese authorities have been criticized by political dissidents and human rights activists for widespread human rights abuses, including political repression, mass censoring, mass surveillance of their citizens and crimson suppression of protests. China is a originate nation, though it has grown to become the world ‘s largest economy by GDP at purchasing baron parity, it ‘s the second-largest area by nominal GDP. China is the universe ‘s fastest-growing major economy, the second-wealthiest state in the universe, and the populace ‘s largest manufacturer and exporter. The nation has the global ‘s largest standing army by military personnel, with the second-largest defense budget entirely after the United States .

etymology

China (today’s Mangi (inland of Xanton), and Cataio (inland of China and Chequan, and including the capital Cambalu, Xandu, and a ( today ‘s Guangdong ), ( inland of ), and ( inland ofand, and including the capital, and a marble bridge ) are all shown as separate regions on this 1570 map by Abraham Ortelius The word “ China ” has been used in English since the sixteenth hundred ; however, it was not a give voice used by the chinese themselves during this period in clock time. Its beginning has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word Chīna, used in ancient India. [ 19 ] “ China ” appears in Richard Eden ‘s 1555 translation [ l ] of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. [ thousand ] [ 19 ] Barbosa ‘s usage was derived from persian Chīn ( چین ), which was in turn derived from Sanskrit Cīna ( चीन ). [ 24 ] Cīna was first used in early Hindu bible, including the Mahābhārata ( fifth hundred BCE ) and the Laws of Manu ( second hundred BCE ). [ 25 ] In 1655, Martino Martini suggested that the son China is derived ultimately from the appoint of the Qin dynasty ( 221–206 BCE ). [ 26 ] [ 25 ] Although use in amerind sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is however given in respective sources. [ 27 ] The origin of the Sanskrit news is a matter of argue, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. [ 19 ] alternate suggestions include the names for Yelang and the Jing or Chu state. [ 25 ] [ 28 ] The official name of the advanced submit is the “ People ‘s Republic of China ” ( simplified Chinese : 中华人民共和国 ; traditional taiwanese : 中華人民共和國 ; pinyin : Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó ). The shorter imprint is “ China ” Zhōngguó ( 中国 ; 中國 ) from zhōng ( “ central ” ) and guó ( “ state ” ), [ n ] a term which developed under the western Zhou dynasty in citation to its royal estate. [ oxygen ] It was then applied to the area around Luoyi ( contemporary Luoyang ) during the Eastern Zhou and then to China ‘s Central Plain before being used as an episodic synonym for the department of state under the Qing. [ 30 ] It was frequently used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia people from perceived “ barbarians ”. [ 30 ] The name Zhongguo is besides translated as “ Middle Kingdom ” in English. [ 32 ] China ( PRC ) is sometimes referred to as the Mainland when distinguishing the ROC from the PRC. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ]

history

prehistory

archaeological tell suggests that early hominids inhabited China 2.25 million years ago. [ 37 ] The hominian fossils of Peking Man, a Homo erectus who used fire, [ 38 ] were discovered in a cave at Zhoukoudian near Beijing ; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago. [ 39 ] The fossilized tooth of Homo sapiens ( dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago ) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County, Hunan. [ 40 ] chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BCE, [ 41 ] at Damaidi around 6000 BCE, [ 42 ] Dadiwan from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols ( 7th millennium BCE ) constituted the earliest taiwanese writing system. [ 41 ]

early dynastic rule

According to taiwanese tradition, the beginning dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2100 BCE. [ 43 ] The Xia dynasty marked the begin of China ‘s political arrangement based on ancestral monarchies, or dynasties, which lasted for a millennium. [ 44 ] The dynasty was considered fabulous by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959. [ 45 ] It remains indecipherable whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period. [ 46 ] The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records. [ 47 ] The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the eleventh century BCE. [ 48 ] Their oracle bone handwriting ( from c. 1500 BCE ) [ 49 ] [ 50 ] represents the oldest shape of chinese write yet found [ 51 ] and is a target ancestor of modern chinese characters. [ 52 ] The Shang was conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Some principalities finally emerged from the weakened Zhou, no longer amply obeyed the Zhou baron, and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year form and Autumn period. By the time of the Warring States menstruation of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were only seven powerful states left. [ 53 ]

imperial China

The Warring States menstruation ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms, reunited China and established the prevailing order of autocracy. King Zheng of Qin proclaimed himself the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty. He enacted Qin ‘s legalist reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of taiwanese characters, measurements, road widths ( i.e., cart axles ‘ distance ), and currency. His dynasty besides conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi, Guangdong, and Vietnam. [ 54 ] The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor ‘s death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to far-flung rebellion. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Following a far-flung civil war during which the imperial library at Xianyang was burned, [ p ] the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the Han Chinese. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The Han expanded the empire ‘s territory well, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, South Korea, and Yunnan, and the convalescence of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue. Han participation in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk Road, replacing the earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient worldly concern. [ 58 ] Despite the Han ‘s initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin doctrine of Legalism in favor of Confucianism, Qin ‘s legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han politics and its successors. [ 59 ]
Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the second century BC After the end of the Han dynasty, a menstruation of discord known as Three Kingdoms followed, [ 60 ] whose central figures were late immortalized in one of the Four Classics of taiwanese literature. At its end, Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon the ascension of a developmentally disable emperor ; the Five Barbarians then invaded and ruled northerly China as the Sixteen States. The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors ‘ apartheid policies and enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects, largely integrating them into chinese culture. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song. The respective successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas last reunited by the Sui in 581. The Sui restored the Han to baron through China, reformed its agribusiness, economy and imperial examen system, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism. however, they fell cursorily when their conscription for public works and a fail war in northerly Korea provoked far-flung unrest. [ 61 ] [ 62 ] Under the future Tang and Song dynasties, chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a aureate age. [ 63 ] The Tang Empire retained control of the western Regions and the Silk Road, [ 64 ] which brought traders to equally far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa, [ 65 ] and made the capital Chang’an a cosmopolitan urban center. however, it was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan Rebellion in the eighth century. [ 66 ] In 907, the Tang disintegrated wholly when the local military governors became indocile. The Song dynasty ended the breakaway situation in 960, leading to a remainder of baron between the Song and Khitan Liao. The song was the beginning government in world history to issue newspaper money and the first chinese civil order to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the break shipbuilding diligence along with the ocean trade wind. [ 67 ]
Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, largely because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southerly China, and the product of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty besides saw a revival of Confucianism, in reaction to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang, [ 68 ] and a booming of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and porcelain were brought to raw levels of maturity and complexity. [ 69 ] [ 70 ] however, the military helplessness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchen Jin dynasty. In 1127, Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin–Song Wars. The remnants of the Song retreated to southern China. [ 71 ] The Mongol seduction of China began in 1205 with the gradual seduction of western Xia by Genghis Khan, [ 72 ] who besides invaded Jin territories. [ 73 ] In 1271, the Mongol drawing card Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty, which conquered the survive end of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens ; this was reduced to 60 million by the prison term of the census in 1300. [ 74 ] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang led a rebellion that overthrew the yuan in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and golden economy amid a brandish of art and polish. It was during this menstruation that admiral Zheng He led the Ming treasure voyages throughout the indian Ocean, reaching american samoa far as East Africa. [ 75 ]
In the early years of the Ming dynasty, China ‘s capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the bud of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming far critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations. [ 76 ] The scholar-official class became a supporting violence of diligence and department of commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against japanese invasions of Korea ( 1592–1598 ) and Manchu invasions led to an exhausted treasury. [ 77 ] In 1644, Beijing was captured by a alliance of peasant insurgent forces led by Li Zicheng. The Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li ‘s ephemeral Shun dynasty and subsequently seized dominance of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. [ citation needed ] The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. Its conquest of the Ming ( 1618–1683 ) cost 25 million lives and the economy of China shrank drastically. [ 78 ] After the southerly Ming ended, the far conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire. [ 79 ] The centralize autocracy was strengthened to suppress anti-Qing opinion with the policy of valuing agribusiness and restraining commerce, the Haijin ( “ ocean ban ” ), and ideological command as represented by the literary inquisition, causing sociable and technical stagnation. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] In the mid-19th century, the dynasty experienced western imperialism in the Opium Wars with Britain and France. China was forced to pay recompense, assailable treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the british [ 82 ] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the beginning of the unequal Treaties. The first Sino-Japanese War ( 1894–1895 ) resulted in Qing China ‘s loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, adenine well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan. [ 83 ]

fall of the Qing dynasty

In the mid-19th century, the Qing dynasty experienced western imperialism in the Opium Wars with Britain and France. China was forced to pay compensation, outdoors treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the british [ 82 ] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of the unequal Treaties. The first Sino-Japanese War ( 1894–1895 ) resulted in Qing China ‘s loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, angstrom good as the cession of Taiwan to Japan. [ 84 ] The Qing dynasty besides began experiencing inner agitation in which tens of millions of people died, specially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the fail Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt ( 1862–1877 ) in the northwesterly. The initial achiever of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s. [ citation needed ] In the nineteenth century, the bang-up chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died. [ 85 ] The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform design in 1898 to establish a advanced constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The doomed anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 promote weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a course of study of reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. [ 86 ] Puyi, the last emperor of China, abdicated in 1912. [ 87 ]

constitution of the Republic and World War II

On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang ( the KMT or Nationalist Party ) was proclaimed probationary president. [ 88 ] On 12 February 1912, regent Empress Dowager Longyu sealed the imperial abdication decree on behalf of 4 class previous Puyi, the last emperor of China, ending 5,000 years of monarchy in China. [ 89 ] In March 1912, the presidency was given to Yuan Shikai, a early Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and enemy from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916. [ 90 ] After Yuan Shikai ‘s death in 1916, China was politically break up. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but about powerless ; regional warlords controlled most of its territory. [ 91 ] [ 92 ] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, the then Principal of the Republic of China Military Academy, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings, known jointly as the Northern Expedition. [ 93 ] [ 94 ] The Kuomintang moved the nation ‘s capital to Nanjing and implemented “ political care ”, an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen ‘s San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic express. [ 95 ] [ 96 ] The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to struggle the communist People ‘s Liberation Army ( PLA ), against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, specially after the PLA retreated in the Long March, until japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi’an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan. [ 97 ]
The second Sino-Japanese War ( 1937–1945 ), a field of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the PLA. japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population ; in all, adenine many as 20 million chinese civilians died. [ 98 ] An calculate 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the japanese occupation. [ 99 ] During the war, China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union, were referred to as “ trust territory of the herculean ” [ 100 ] and were recognized as the Allied “ Big Four “ in the Declaration by United Nations. [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Along with the other three bang-up powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was by and by considered one of the chief victors in the war. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] After the giving up of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was returned to taiwanese control. China emerged triumphant but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued misgiving between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing agitation, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China. [ 105 ]

Civil War and the People ‘s Republic

major battle in the chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the CCP in control of most of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore to Taiwan, reducing its district to entirely Taiwan, Hainan, and their encompassing islands. On 1 October 1949, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the establishment of the People ‘s Republic of China at the new nation ‘s establish ceremony and inauguration military parade in Tiananmen Square, Beijing. [ 106 ] [ 107 ] In 1950, the People ‘s Liberation Army captured Hainan from the ROC [ 108 ] and incorporated Tibet. [ 109 ] however, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s. [ 110 ] The government consolidated its popularity among the peasants through kingdom reform, which included the execution of between 1 and 2 million landlords. [ 111 ] China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons. [ 112 ] The taiwanese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974. [ 113 ] however, the Great Leap Forward, an ideal massive reform stick out, resulted in an calculate 15 to 35 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, by and large from starvation. [ 114 ] [ 115 ] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social convulsion that lasted until Mao ‘s death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic in the United Nations, and took its buttocks as a permanent member of the Security Council. [ 116 ]

Reforms and contemporary history

After Mao ‘s death, the Gang of Four was cursorily arrested by Hua Guofeng and held creditworthy for the excesses of the cultural Revolution. Elder Deng Xiaoping took exponent in 1978, and instituted significant economic reforms. The Party loosened governmental manipulate over citizens ‘ personal lives, and the communes were gradually disbanded in favor of working contracted to households. This marked China ‘s passage from a design economy to a desegregate economy with an increasingly open-market environment. [ 117 ] China adopted its stream constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the inhibition of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnations and sanctions against the chinese government from respective alien countries. [ 118 ]
Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their government, China ‘s economic performance pulled an estimated [ by whom? ] 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth pace of 11.2 %. [ 119 ] [ better source needed ] The area joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao ‘s leadership in the 2000s. however, the emergence besides hard impacted the country ‘s resources and environment, [ 120 ] [ 121 ] and caused major social supplanting. [ 122 ] [ 123 ] chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping has ruled since 2012 and has pursued large-scale efforts to reform China ‘s economy [ 124 ] [ 125 ] ( which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing emergence ), [ 126 ] [ 127 ] [ 128 ] and has besides reformed the one-child policy and penal system, [ 129 ] arsenic well as instituting a huge anti corruption crackdown. [ 130 ] In 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative, a ball-shaped infrastructure investment project. [ 131 ] On 1 July 2021, the People ‘s Republic of China celebrated the hundredth anniversary of the constitution of the CCP ( first of the Two Centenaries ) with a huge assemble in Tiananmen Square and cultural artistic performance in Beijing National Stadium in Beijing. [ 132 ]

geography

China ‘s landscape is huge and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to the subtropical forests in the wet south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges divide China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated easterly seaside. China ‘s coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometer ( 9,000 nautical mile ) long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh boundary line to the Eurasian Steppe which has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe route – the ancestor of the planetary Silk Road ( mho ). [ citation needed ] The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. The geographic plaza of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at. China ‘s landscapes vary significantly across its huge territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and dumbly populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian tableland in the north, across-the-board grasslands predominate. southerly China is dominated by hills and gloomy mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the delta of China ‘s two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. early major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west model major batch ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High tableland feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world ‘s highest point, Mount Everest ( 8,848 meter ), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border. [ 133 ] The state ‘s lowest point, and the world ‘s third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake ( −154 thousand ) in the Turpan Depression. [ 134 ]

climate

China ‘s climate is chiefly dominated by dry seasons and besotted monsoons, which lead to marked temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry ; in summer, southerly winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and damp. [ 136 ] A major environmental issue in China is the continue expansion of its deserts, peculiarly the Gobi Desert. [ 137 ] [ 138 ] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agrarian practices have resulted in debris storms plaguing northern China each give, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. China ‘s environmental watchdog, SEPA, stated in 2007 that China is losing 4,000 km2 ( 1,500 sq nautical mile ) per class to desertification. [ 139 ] Water quality, corrosion, and contamination control have become important issues in China ‘s relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to body of water shortages for hundreds of millions of people. [ 140 ] According to academics, in order to limit climate change in China to 1.5 °C ( 2.7 °F ) electricity generation from coal in China without carbon appropriate must be phased out by 2045. [ 141 ] official government statistics about chinese agricultural productiveness are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary company government levels. [ 142 ] [ 143 ] much of China has a climate very desirable for department of agriculture and the area has been the world ‘s largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many early crops. [ 144 ]

biodiversity

China is one of 17 megadiverse countries, [ 145 ] lying in two of the world ‘s major biogeographic kingdom : the Palearctic and the Indomalayan. By one quantify, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the worldly concern, after Brazil and Colombia. [ 146 ] The state signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993. [ 147 ] It late produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one rewrite that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010. [ 148 ] China is home to at least 551 species of mammals ( the third-highest such count in the worldly concern ), [ 149 ] 1,221 species of birds ( eighth ), [ 150 ] 424 species of reptiles ( seventh ) [ 151 ] and 333 species of amphibians ( seventh ). [ 152 ] Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute press from, the populace ‘s largest population of humans. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China, due chiefly to human action such as habitat end, contamination and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional taiwanese medicine. [ 153 ] Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the area has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percentage of China ‘s sum land sphere. [ 154 ] [ better source needed ] Most crazy animals have been eliminated from the effect agrarian regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west. [ 155 ] [ 156 ] The Baiji was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006. [ 157 ] China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants, [ 158 ] and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as elk and asian black behave, along with over 120 dame species. [ 159 ] The understory of damp conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of retem and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. subtropical forests, which are overriding in central and southerly China, support a high concentration of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China. [ 159 ] China has over 10,000 read species of fungus, [ 160 ] and of them, closely 6,000 are higher fungus. [ 161 ]

environment

In the early 2000s, China has suffered from environmental deterioration and contamination due to its rapid pace of industrialization. [ 162 ] [ 163 ] While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly rigorous, they are ill enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in prefer of rapid economic development. [ 164 ] China is the country with the second highest end price because of air contamination, after India. There are approximately 1 million deaths caused by exposure to ambient air pollution. [ 165 ] [ 166 ] Although China ranks as the highest carbon dioxide emitting state in the populace, [ 167 ] it merely emits 8 tons of CO2 per head, significantly lower than develop countries such as the United States ( 16.1 ), Australia ( 16.8 ) and South Korea ( 13.6 ). [ 168 ] In late years, China has clamped down on befoulment. In March 2014, CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping “ declared war ” on befoulment during the opening of the National People ‘s Congress. [ 169 ] After extensive argue lasting closely two years, the fantan approved a new environmental law in April. The newly law empowers environmental enforcement agencies with great punitive power and bombastic fines for offenders, defines areas which require extra auspices, and gives mugwump environmental groups more ability to operate in the country. [ citation needed ] In 2020, Chinese Communist Party general repository Xi Jinping announced that China aims to peak emissions before 2030 and go carbon-neutral by 2060 in accord with the Paris climate accord. [ 170 ] According to Climate Action Tracker, if accomplished it would lower the have a bun in the oven wax in global temperature by 0.2 – 0.3 degrees – “ the biggest unmarried decrease always estimated by the Climate Action Tracker ”. [ 171 ] In September 2021 Xi Jinping announced that China will not build “ coal-fired baron projects abroad ”. The decision can be “ pivotal ” in reducing emissions. The Belt and Road Initiative did not include financing such projects already in the first half of 2021. [ 172 ] The area besides had meaning water befoulment problems : 8.2 % of China ‘s rivers had been polluted by industrial and agrarian waste in 2019. [ 173 ] [ 174 ] China had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.14/10, ranking it 53rd globally out of 172 countries. [ 175 ] In 2020, a sweep jurisprudence was passed by the chinese government to protect the ecology of the Yangtze River. The new laws include strengthening ecological protective covering rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, sternly restricting sand mining a well as a dispatch fishing banish on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes. [ 176 ] China is besides the world ‘s run investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with $ 52 billion invested in 2011 alone ; [ 177 ] [ 178 ] [ 179 ] it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] [ 182 ] By 2015, over 24 % of China ‘s energy was derived from renewable sources, while most notably from hydroelectric power : a total install capacity of 197 GW makes China the largest hydroelectric power producer in the earth. [ 183 ] [ 184 ] China besides has the largest power capacitance of install solar photovoltaics system and wind office system in the worldly concern. [ 185 ] [ 186 ] Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the populace ‘s largest, [ 168 ] as is renewable energy in China. [ 187 ]

political geography

Map showing the territorial claims of the PRC. The People ‘s Republic of China is the third-largest state in the earth by land area after Russia and Canada. [ q ] China ‘s sum area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 ( 3,700,000 sq mile ). [ 188 ] [ better source needed ] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 ( 3,696,100 sq mi ) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, [ 189 ] to 9,596,961 km2 ( 3,705,407 sq mile ) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook, [ 5 ] and the CIA World Factbook. [ 8 ] China has the longest blend bring margin in the earth, measuring 22,117 kilometer ( 13,743 security service ) from the mouth of the Yalu River ( Amnok River ) to the Gulf of Tonkin. [ 8 ] China borders 14 nations and extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar ( Burma ) in Southeast Asia ; India, Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, and Pakistan [ r ] in South Asia ; Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia ; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. additionally, China shares nautical boundaries with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines. [ citation needed ]

Politics

The taiwanese constitution states that The People ‘s Republic of China “ is a socialist state governed by a people ’ s democratic dictatorship that is led by the influence class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants, ” and that the state of matter institutions “ shall exercise the principle of democratic centralism. ” [ 190 ] The PRC is one of the worldly concern ‘s only socialistic states governed by a communist party. The chinese politics has been variously described as communist and socialist, but besides as authoritarian [ 191 ] and corporatist, [ 192 ] with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against release access to the Internet, freedom of the press, exemption of fabrication, the correct to have children, barren formation of social organizations and freedom of religion. [ 193 ] Its stream political, ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as a “ advisory democracy “ “ people ‘s democratic dictatorship “, “ socialism with chinese characteristics “ ( which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances ) and the “ socialist marketplace economy “ respectively. [ 194 ] [ 195 ]

Communist Party

Since 2018, the main torso of the chinese constitution declares that “ the define feature of socialism with chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party ( CCP ). ” [ 196 ] The 2018 amendments constitutionalized the de facto one-party state status of China, [ 196 ] wherein the CCP General Secretary ( party drawing card ) holds ultimate power and agency over express and politics and serves as the informal Paramount leader. [ 197 ] The stream General Secretary is eleven Jinping, who took position on November 15, 2012, and was re-elected on 25 October 2017. [ 198 ] The electoral system is pyramidal. local People ‘s Congresses are directly elected, and higher levels of People ‘s Congresses up to the National People ‘s Congress ( NPC ) are indirectly elected by the People ‘s Congress of the flush immediately below. [ 190 ] Another eight political parties, have representatives in the NPC and the chinese People ‘s Political Consultative Conference ( CPPCC ). [ 199 ] China supports the Leninist rationale of “ democratic centralism “, [ 190 ] but critics describe the elect National People ‘s Congress as a “ rubber stamp “ body. [ 200 ] Since both the CCP and the People ‘s Liberation Army ( PLA ) promote according to seniority, it is possible to discern discrete generations of chinese leadership. [ 201 ] In official discourse, each group of leadership is identified with a discrete annex of the political orientation of the party. Historians have studied respective periods in the development of the government of the People ‘s Republic of China by reference to these “ generations ” .

government

China is a one-party country led by the Chinese Communist Party ( CCP ). The National People ‘s Congress in 2018 altered the country ‘s constitution to remove the two-term limit on holding the Presidency of China, permitting the stream leader, Xi Jinping, to remain president of China ( and General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party ) for an unlimited time, earning criticism for creating dictatorial administration. [ 202 ] [ 203 ] The President is the titular head of state, elected by the National People ‘s Congress. The Premier is the head of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four frailty premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent president of the united states is Xi Jinping, who is besides the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China ‘s overriding leader. The incumbent premier is Li Keqiang, who is besides a senior member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee, China ‘s de facto top decision-making torso. [ 204 ] [ 205 ] In 2017, Xi called on the communist party to further tighten its clasp on the country, to uphold the one of the party leadership, and achieve the “ taiwanese Dream of home rejuvenation ”. [ 194 ] [ 206 ] Political concerns in China include the growing gap between full-bodied and poor and politics corruption. [ 207 ] Nonetheless, the degree of populace support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80–95 % of chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the cardinal politics, according to a 2011 survey. [ 208 ] A 2020 surveil from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research besides found that 75 % of Chinese were satisfied with the government on information dissemination amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, while 67 % were meet with its delivery of daily necessities. [ 209 ] [ 210 ]

administrative divisions

The People ‘s Republic of China is formally divided into 23 provinces, [ 211 ] five autonomous regions ( each with a designate minority group ), and four municipalities —collectively referred to as “ mainland China “ —as well as the particular administrative regions ( SARs ) of Hong Kong and Macau. Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions : North China, Northeast China, East China, South Central China, Southwest China, and Northwest China. [ 212 ] China considers Taiwan to be its 23rd state, [ 211 ] although Taiwan is governed by the Republic of China ( ROC ), which rejects the PRC ‘s claim. conversely, the ROC constitution claims sovereignty over all divisions governed by the PRC. [ 213 ]

alien relations

diplomatic relations of China The PRC has diplomatic relations with 175 countries and maintains embassies in 162. In 2019, China had the largest diplomatic network in the universe. [ 214 ] [ 215 ] Its authenticity is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries ; it is therefore the largest and most populous state with limited recognition, with a population of more than 1.4 billion. [ 216 ] In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole spokesperson of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent wave members of the United Nations Security Council. [ 217 ] China was besides a former member and drawing card of the Non-Aligned Movement, and hush considers itself an advocate for developing countries. [ 218 ] Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group ‘s third official peak at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011. [ 219 ] Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other nation acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. [ citation needed ] Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan, [ 220 ] specially in the matter of armament sales. [ 221 ] much of stream taiwanese alien policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai ‘s Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is besides driven by the concept of “ harmony without uniformity ”, which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. [ 222 ] This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or inhibitory by western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran. [ 223 ] China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia, [ 224 ] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council. [ 225 ] [ 226 ] [ 227 ]

Trade relations

China became the world ‘s largest trade nation in 2013, as measured by the total of imports and exports, a well as the world ‘s biggest commodity importer. comprising roughly 45 % of nautical ‘s dry-bulk market. [ 228 ] [ 229 ] By 2016, China was the largest trade spouse of 124 early countries. [ 230 ] China is the largest deal spouse for the ASEAN nations, with a full barter value of $ 345.8 billion in 2015 accounting for 15.2 % of ASEAN ‘s entire trade. [ 231 ] ASEAN is besides China ‘s largest trade partner. [ 232 ] In 2020, China became the largest trading spouse of the European Union for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching about $ 700 billion. [ 233 ] China, along with ASEAN, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand, is a member of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, the populace ‘s largest free-trade sphere covering 30 % of the world ‘s population and economic output. [ 234 ] China became a member of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) in 2001. In 2004, it proposed an wholly new East Asia Summit ( EAS ) model as a forum for regional security issues. [ 235 ] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. [ 236 ] China has had a long and complex barter relationship with the United States. In 2000, the United States Congress approved “ permanent wave normal craft relations ” ( PNTR ) with China, allowing chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries. [ 237 ] China has a significant trade excess with the United States, its most crucial export marketplace. [ 238 ] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage. [ 239 ] [ 240 ] [ 241 ] [ needs update ] Since the go of the hundred, China has followed a policy of engaging with african nations for craft and bilateral co-operation ; [ 242 ] [ 243 ] [ 244 ] in 2019, Sino-African trade totalled $ 208 billion, having grown 20 times over two decades. [ 245 ] According to Madison Condon “ China finances more infrastructure projects in Africa than the World Bank and provides billions of dollars in low-interest loans to the continent ’ randomness emerging economies. ” [ 246 ] China maintains extensive and highly diversify trade wind links with the European Union. [ 233 ] China has furthermore strengthened its trade ties with major south american economies, [ 247 ] and is the largest trade spouse of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others. [ 248 ]
China ‘s Belt and Road Initiative has expanded significantly over the final six years and, as of April 2020, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus here is particularly on build effective tape drive routes. The focus is particularly on the nautical Silk Road with its connections to East Africa and Europe and there are chinese investments or associate declarations of captive at numerous ports such as Gwadar, Kuantan, Hambantota, Piraeus and Trieste. however many of these loans made under the Belt and Road plan are unsustainable and China has faced a total of calls for debt easing from debtor nations. [ 249 ] [ 250 ]

territorial disputes

Taiwan

Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighbouring states. For a larger map, see here ever since its constitution after the taiwanese Civil War, the PRC has claimed the territories governed by the Republic of China ( ROC ), a separate political entity today normally known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a region of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a region of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province. These claims are controversial because of the complicate Cross-Strait relations, with the PRC treating the One-China policy as one of its most important diplomatic principles. [ 251 ] [ better source needed ]

Land edge disputes

China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighbor countries, having pursued significant compromises in most of them. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] [ 254 ] As of 2020, China presently has a disputed land frame with lone India and Bhutan. [ citation needed ]

Maritime surround disputes

China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over the ownership of respective small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal. [ 255 ] [ 256 ]

Sociopolitical issues and homo rights

China uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, surveillance of personal engineering, and a social credit system as a means of social control of persons living in China. [ 257 ] The taiwanese majority rule movement, social activists, and some members of the Chinese Communist Party believe in the necessitate for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been importantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The united states constitution of the People ‘s Republic of China states that the “ fundamental rights ” of citizens include exemption of lecture, exemption of the iron, the right to a bazaar trial, freedom of religion, cosmopolitan right to vote, and property rights. however, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant auspices against criminal prosecution by the state. [ 258 ] [ 259 ] Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling Communist Party are tolerated, censoring of political manner of speaking and information, most notably on the Internet, [ 260 ] [ 261 ] are routinely used to prevent collective natural process. [ 262 ] By 2020, China plans to give all its citizens a personal “ Social Credit ” score based on how they behave. [ 263 ] [ needs update ] The Social Credit System, now being piloted in a number of chinese cities, [ needs update ] is considered a shape of bulk surveillance which uses big data analysis engineering. [ 264 ] [ 265 ] A number of foreign governments, foreign imperativeness agencies, and NGOs have criticized China ‘s homo rights record, alleging far-flung civil rights violations such as detention without test, constrained abortions, [ 266 ] forced confessions, anguish, restrictions of fundamental rights, [ 193 ] [ 267 ] and excessive use of the death penalty. [ 268 ] [ 269 ] The government suppresses democratic protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to “ social stability ”, as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. [ 270 ]
The taiwanese express is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet [ 272 ] [ 273 ] and Xinjiang, [ 274 ] including violent patrol crackdowns and religious inhibition throughout the taiwanese nation. [ 275 ] [ 276 ] At least one million members of China ‘s Muslim Uyghur minority have been detained in mass detention camps, termed “ vocational education and coach Centers ”, aimed at changing the political think of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs. [ 277 ] According to the U.S. Department of State, actions including political indoctrination, torture, physical and psychological abuse, forced sterilization, sexual misuse, and forced labor movement are common in these facilities. [ 278 ] The country has besides sought to control offshore report of tensions in Xinjiang, intimidating foreign-based reporters by detaining their family members. [ 279 ] According to a 2020 reputation, China ‘s treatment of Uyghurs meets UN definition of genocide, [ 280 ] and several groups called for a UN investigation. [ 281 ] On 19 January 2021, the United States Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo, announced that the United States Department of State had determined that “ genocide and crimes against humanity ” had been perpetrated by China against the Uyghurs. [ 282 ]
ball-shaped studies from Pew Research Center in 2014 and 2017 ranked the chinese government ‘s restrictions on religion as among the highest in the world, despite low to moderate rankings for religious-related social hostilities in the country. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] The Global Slavery Index estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people were living in “ conditions of modern slavery “, or 0.25 % of the population, including victims of human traffic, forced labor, pull marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed push system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to which extent its respective practices have stopped. [ 285 ] The Chinese penal system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps, which fall under the head Laogai ( “ reform through labor ” ). The Laogai Research Foundation in the United States estimated that there were over a thousand slave british labour party prisons and camps, known jointly as the Laogai. [ 286 ]

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In 2019, a study called for the mass retraction of more than 400 scientific papers on harmonium transplant, because of fears the organs were obtained unethically from taiwanese prisoners. While the government says 10,000 transplants occur each year, a report by the Falun Gong -linked IETAC alleged that between 60,000 and 100,000 organs are transplanted each year and claimed that this gap was being made up by perform prisoners of conscience. [ 287 ]

military

With 2.3 million active troops, the People ‘s Liberation Army ( PLA ) is the largest standing military power in the global, commanded by the Central Military Commission ( CMC ). [ 288 ] China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind North Korea. The PLA consists of the Ground Force ( PLAGF ), the Navy ( PLAN ), the Air Force ( PLAAF ), and the People ‘s Liberation Army Rocket Force ( PLARF ). [ citation needed ] According to the chinese politics, China ‘s military budget for 2017 totalled US $ 151.5 billion, constituting the world ‘s second-largest military budget, although the military expenditures-GDP proportion with 1.3 % of GDP is below global average. [ 289 ] however, many authorities – including SIPRI and the U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense – argue that China does not report its real floor of military outgo, which is allegedly a lot higher than the official budget. [ 289 ] [ 290 ]

economy

A proportional theatrical performance of chinese exports, 2019 Since 2010, China has had the worldly concern ‘s second-largest economy in terms of noun phrase GDP, [ 292 ] totaling approximately US $ 15.66 trillion ( 101.6 trillion Yuan ) as of 2020. [ 293 ] [ 294 ] In terms of purchasing office parity ( PPP GDP ), China ‘s economy has been the largest in the universe since 2014, according to the World Bank. [ 295 ] China is besides the world ‘s fastest-growing major economy. [ 296 ] According to the World Bank, China ‘s GDP grew from $ 150 billion in 1978 to $ 14.28 trillion by 2019. [ 297 ] China ‘s economic increase has been systematically above 6 percentage since the presentation of economic reforms in 1978. [ 298 ] China is besides the populace ‘s largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. [ 299 ] Between 2010 and 2019, China ‘s contribution to ball-shaped GDP increase has been 25 % to 39 %. [ 300 ] [ 301 ] China had one of the largest economies in the universe for most of the past two thousand years, [ 302 ] during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversify economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. major sectors of competitive forte include fabrication, retail, mine, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, bank, electronics, telecommunications, very estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten-spot largest stock exchanges in the universe [ 305 ] — Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen —that together have a market capitalization of over $ 15.9 trillion, as of October 2020. [ 306 ] China has four ( Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, and Shenzhen ) out of the populace ‘s top ten most competitive fiscal centers, which is more than any country in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index. [ 307 ] By 2035, China ‘s four cities ( Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou and Shenzhen ) are projected to be among the ball-shaped top ten largest cities by nominal GDP according to a report by Oxford Economics. [ 308 ] China has been the world ‘s No. 1 manufacturer since 2010, after overtaking the US, which had been No. 1 for the previous hundred years. [ 309 ] [ 310 ] China has besides been No. 2 in high-tech manufacture since 2012, according to US National Science Foundation. [ 311 ] China is the moment largest retail market in the world, next to the United States. [ 312 ] China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for 40 % of the global market plowshare in 2016 [ 313 ] and more than 50 % of the global market share in 2019. [ 314 ] China is the earth ‘s leader in electric vehicles, manufacture and buying half of all the circuit board electric cars ( BEV and PHEV ) in the world in 2018. [ 315 ] China is besides the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles arsenic well as respective key bare-assed materials for batteries. [ 316 ] China had 174 GW of install solar capacity by the end of 2018, which amounts to more than 40 % of the global solar capacity. [ 317 ] [ 318 ] Foreign and some chinese sources have claimed that official chinese government statistics overstate China ‘s economic growth. [ 319 ] [ 320 ] [ 321 ] [ 322 ] however, several western academics and institutions have stated that China ‘s economic increase is higher than indicated by official figures. [ 323 ] [ 324 ] [ 325 ] [ 326 ] [ 327 ] [ 328 ] China has a large cozy economy, which arose as a result of the area ‘s economic opening. The informal economy is a source of use and income for workers, but it is unrecognized and suffers from lower productiveness. [ 329 ] In 2021, China announced it had eliminated poverty through a series of direct-action poverty easing policies. [ 330 ] taiwanese women in China solve as prostitutes in bars in South Korea, such as Maggie ‘s because of economy problems. chinese women besides work in the brothels of South Korea. Because taiwanese citizens can stay in South Korea without registration or indigence for a visa, many of the prostitutes have been there for many years and return to China once a month. [ 331 ] [ 332 ] [ 333 ] [ 334 ] [ 335 ]

wealth in China

As of 2020, China was second in the global, after the US, in sum count of billionaires and sum numeral of millionaires, with 698 chinese billionaires and 4.4 million millionaires. [ 336 ] [ 337 ] In 2019, China overtook the US as the home to the highest issue of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $ 110,000, according to the ball-shaped wealth report by Credit Suisse. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] According to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020, China is home to five of the worldly concern ‘s top ten-spot cities ( Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou in the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 10th spots, respectively ) by the highest number of billionaires, which is more than any early country. [ 340 ] China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021, two-thirds of the ball-shaped total, and minted 24 raw female billionaires in 2020. [ 341 ] however, it ranks behind over 60 countries ( out of around 180 ) in per head economic end product, making it an upper-middle income area. [ 342 ] Additionally, its development is highly spotty. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more golden compared to rural and interior regions. [ 343 ] China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other area in history [ 344 ] —between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million. China reduced the extreme poverty rate—per international standard, it refers to an income of less than $ 1.90/day—from 88 % in 1981 to 1.85 % by 2013. [ 345 ] According to the World Bank, the number of Chinese in extreme poverty fell from 756 million to 25 million between 1990 and 2013. [ 346 ] The assign of people in China be below the external poverty pipeline of $ 1.90 per sidereal day ( 2011 PPP ) fell to 0.3 % in 2018 from 66.3 % in 1990. Using the lower-middle income poverty telephone line of $ 3.20 per sidereal day, the parcel fell to 2.9 % in 2018 from 90.0 % in 1990. Using the upper-middle income poverty line of $ 5.50 per day, the part fell to 17.0 % from 98.3 % in 1990. [ 347 ]

economic growth

China ‘s nominal GDP tendency from 1952 to 2015 From its establish in 1949 until belated 1978, the People ‘s Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy. Following Mao ‘s death in 1976 and the attendant end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the newly chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mix economy under one-party rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while extraneous trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of special Economic Zones ( SEZs ). ineffective state-owned enterprises ( SOEs ) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. [ citation needed ] contemporary China is chiefly characterized as having a market economy based on individual property ownership, [ 348 ] and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] The express inactive dominates in strategic “ column ” sectors such as energy product and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million individual businesses recorded in 2008. [ 351 ] [ 352 ] [ better source needed ] [ 353 ] [ 354 ] In 2018, individual enterprises in China accounted for 60 % of GDP, 80 % of urban use and 90 % of fresh jobs. [ 355 ] In the early 2010s, China ‘s economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles, weakening international demand for chinese exports and fragility in the global economy. [ 356 ] [ 357 ] [ 358 ] China ‘s GDP was slightly larger than Germany ‘s in 2007 ; however, by 2017, China ‘s $ 12.2 trillion-economy became larger than those of Germany, UK, France and Italy combined. [ 359 ] In 2018, the IMF reiterated its bode that China will overtake the US in terms of nominal GDP by the year 2030. [ 360 ] Economists besides expect China ‘s middle class to expand to 600 million people by 2025. [ 361 ] In 2020, China was the lone major economy in the world to grow, recording a 2.3 % growth due to its achiever in taming the coronavirus within its borders. [ 362 ]

China in the global economy

Share of world GDP (PPP)[363]

Year

Share

1980
2.32%

1990
4.11%

2000

7.40%

2010

13.89%

2018
18.72%

China is a penis of the WTO and is the worldly concern ‘s largest deal power, with a total external trade rate of US $ 4.62 trillion in 2018. [ 364 ] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US $ 3.1 trillion as of 2019, [ 365 ] making its reserves by far the worldly concern ‘s largest. [ 366 ] [ 367 ] In 2012, China was the universe ‘s largest recipient role of inbound foreign lead investment ( FDI ), attracting $ 253 billion. [ 368 ] In 2014, China ‘s foreign exchange remittances were $ US64 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the earth. [ 369 ] China besides invests afield, with a entire outward FDI of $ 62.4 billion in 2012, [ 368 ] and a act of major takeovers of alien firms by taiwanese companies. [ 370 ] China is a major owner of US public debt, holding trillions of dollars worth of U.S. Treasury bonds. [ 371 ] [ 372 ] China ‘s undervalue exchange pace has caused friction with other major economies, [ 240 ] and it has besides been wide criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods. [ 373 ] [ 374 ]

Largest economies by nominal GDP in 2018[375]
Following the 2007–08 fiscal crisis, chinese authorities sought to actively wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a consequence of sensed weaknesses of the external monetary system. [ 376 ] To achieve those ends, China took a series of actions to further the internationalization of the Renminbi. In 2008, China established blur union bond market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquid. [ 377 ] [ 378 ] This was followed with bilateral agreements to settle trades directly in renminbi with Russia, [ 379 ] Japan, [ 380 ] Australia, [ 381 ] Singapore, [ 382 ] the United Kingdom, [ 383 ] and Canada. [ 384 ] As a leave of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the global, an emerging international reserve currentness, [ 385 ] and a component of the IMF ‘s special draw rights ; however, partially due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currentness, it remains far behind the Euro, Dollar and japanese Yen in international trade volumes. [ 386 ]

course and income inequality

China has had the global ‘s largest center class population since 2015, [ 387 ] and the middle class grew to a size of 400 million by 2018. [ 388 ] In 2020, a study by the Brookings Institution forecast that China ‘s middle-class will reach 1.2 billion by 2027 ( about 4 times the stallion U.S. population nowadays ), making up one fourthly of the universe total. [ 389 ] Wages in China have grown a lot in the last 40 years—real ( inflation-adjusted ) wages grew septuple from 1978 to 2007. [ 390 ] By 2018, median wages in chinese cities such as Shanghai were about the same as or higher than the wages in easterly european countries. [ 391 ] China has the world ‘s highest number of billionaires, with about 878 as of October 2020, increasing at the rate of roughly five per workweek. [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] China has a high floor of economic inequality, [ 395 ] which has increased in the past few decades. [ 396 ] In 2018 China ‘s Gini coefficient was 0.467, according to the World Bank. [ 12 ]

skill and technology

historical

Wujing Zongyao of 1044 CE Earliest known written convention for gunpowder, from theof 1044 CE China was once a populace drawing card in skill and engineering astir until the Ming dynasty. [ 397 ] Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, print, the grok, and gunpowder ( the Four Great Inventions ), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and late to Europe. chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. [ 398 ] [ 399 ] By the seventeenth hundred, Europe and the westerly world surpassed China in scientific and technical promotion. [ 400 ] The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars to this day. [ 401 ] After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Japan in the nineteenth century, taiwanese reformers began promoting modern skill and engineering as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to might in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and engineering based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was contribution of central design. [ 402 ] After Mao ‘s end in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations, [ 403 ] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed. [ 404 ]

Modern era

[405]Huawei headquarters in Shenzhen. Huawei is the world’s largest telecoms-equipment-maker and the second-largest manufacturer of smartphones in the world. Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, [ citation needed ] China has made significant investments in scientific research [ 406 ] and is quickly catching up with the US in R & D outgo. [ 407 ] [ 408 ] In 2017, China spent $ 279 billion on scientific research and development. [ 409 ] According to the OECD, China spent 2.11 % of its GDP on research and development ( R & D ) in 2016. [ 410 ] Science and technology are seen as critical for achieving China ‘s economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as “ techno-nationalism ”. [ 411 ] According to the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China received 1.54 million apparent applications in 2018, representing about half of patent applications worldwide, more than double the US. [ 412 ] In 2019, China was No. 1 in international patents application. [ 413 ] China was ranked 12th, 3rd in Asia & Oceania region and 2nd for countries with a population of over 100 million in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, it has increased its rate well since 2013, where it was ranked thirty-fifth. [ 414 ] [ 415 ] [ 416 ] [ 417 ] China ranks first globally in the important indicators, including patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports and it besides has 2 ( Shenzhen-Hong Kong-Guangzhou and Beijing in the 2nd and 3rd spots respectively ) of the ball-shaped top 5 science and engineering clusters, which is more than any early state. [ 414 ] Chinese technical school companies Huawei and ZTE were the top 2 filers of international patents in 2017. [ 418 ] [ 419 ] Chinese-born academicians have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and Fields Medal once respectively, though most of them conducted their prize-winning research in western nations. [ south ] [ improper synthesis? ]
China is developing its education arrangement with an vehemence on skill, technology, engineering and mathematics ( STEM ) ; in 2009, China graduated over 10,000 PhD engineers, and angstrom many as 500,000 BSc graduates, more than any other country. [ 426 ] China besides became the global ‘s largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016. [ 427 ] Chinese engineering companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have become global leaders in telecommunications and personal calculation, [ 428 ] [ 429 ] [ 430 ] and chinese supercomputers are systematically ranked among the world ‘s most potent. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] China has been the world ‘s largest marketplace for industrial robots since 2013 and will account for 45 % of newly installed robots from 2019 to 2021. [ 433 ] The chinese distance program is one of the populace ‘s most active agent. In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, becoming the fifth nation to do so independently. [ 434 ] In 2003, China became the third state to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei ‘s spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5 ; as of 2021, thirteen taiwanese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China ‘s first space station faculty, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the beginning step in a undertaking to assemble a large crewed place by the early 2020s. [ 435 ] In 2013, China successfully landed the Chang’e 3 lander and Yutu rover onto the lunar coat. [ 436 ] In 2016, the first quantum skill satellite was launched in partnership with Austria dedicated to testing the fundamentals of quantum communication in space. [ 437 ] [ 438 ] In 2019, China became the first nation to land a probe— Chang’e 4 —on the far slope of the moon. [ 439 ] In 2020, the first experimental 6G quiz satellite was launched [ 440 ] [ 441 ] and Chang’e 5 successfully returned moon samples to the Earth, making China the third area to do indeed independently after the United States and the Soviet Union. [ 442 ] In 2021, China became the second state in history to independently land a wanderer ( Zhurong ) on Mars, joining the United States. [ 443 ]

infrastructure

After a decades-long infrastructural boom, [ 444 ] China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects : China has the populace ‘s largest bullet train train network, [ 445 ] the most supertall skyscrapers in the universe, [ 446 ] the world ‘s largest power plant ( the Three Gorges Dam ), [ 447 ] the largest energy generation capacity in the world, [ 448 ] a global satellite navigation system with the largest total of satellites in the worldly concern, [ 449 ] and has initiated the Belt and Road Initiative, a large ball-shaped infrastructure building enterprise with financing on the order of $ 50–100 billion per year. [ 450 ] The Belt and Road Initiative could be one of the largest development plans in advanced history. [ 451 ]

Telecommunications

China is the largest telecommunication marketplace in the earth and presently has the largest number of active cellphones of any state in the populace, with over 1.5 billion subscribers, as of 2018. [ 452 ] It besides has the populace ‘s largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 800 million Internet users as of 2018 —equivalent to around 60 % of its population—and about all of them being mobile vitamin a well. [ 453 ] By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40 % of world ‘s total. [ 454 ] China is making rapid advances in 5G —by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials. [ 455 ] China Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom, are the three big providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million fluid users ; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers ; and China Mobile, the biggest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018. [ 456 ] [ 457 ] [ 458 ] Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China. [ 459 ] several chinese telecommunication companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the chinese military. [ 460 ] China has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed Beidou, which began offering commercial seafaring services across Asia in 2012 [ 461 ] deoxyadenosine monophosphate good as global services by the end of 2018. [ 462 ] [ 463 ] Upon the completion of the 35th Beidou satellite, which was launched into orbit on 23 June 2020, Beidou followed GPS and GLONASS as the third completed ball-shaped navigation satellite in the earth. [ 464 ]

conveyance

Since the former 1990s, China ‘s national road network has been significantly expanded through the universe of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2018, China ‘s highways had reached a total duration of 142,500 km ( 88,500 secret intelligence service ), making it the longest highway system in the world. [ 465 ] China has the worldly concern ‘s largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both car sales and production. A side-effect of the rapid increase of China ‘s road network has been a meaning advance in dealings accidents, [ 466 ] though the number of fatalities in traffic accidents fell by 20 % from 2007 to 2017. [ 467 ] In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing preponderance of automobiles – as of 2012, there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China. [ 468 ]
China ‘s railways, which are state-owned, are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the worldly concern ‘s vilify traffic book on only 6 percentage of the populace ‘s tracks in 2006. [ 469 ] [ better source needed ] As of 2017, the nation had 127,000 km ( 78,914 michigan ) of railways, the moment longest network in the world. [ 470 ] The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the taiwanese New Year vacation, when the global ‘s largest annual human migration takes topographic point. [ 471 ] China ‘s high-speed rail ( HSR ) system started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2020, high speed rail in China had reached 37,900 kilometers ( 23,550 miles ) of dedicated lines alone, making it the longest HSR net in the world. [ 472 ] [ 473 ] Services on the Beijing–Shanghai, Beijing–Tianjin, and Chengdu–Chongqing Lines reach up to 350 km/h ( 217 miles per hour ), making them the fastest conventional high speed railroad track services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.29 billion passengers in 2019 it is the universe ‘s busiest. [ 474 ] [ better source needed ] The network includes the Beijing–Guangzhou–Shenzhen High-Speed Railway, the single longest HSR line in the worldly concern, and the Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway, which has three of longest railroad track bridges in the worldly concern. [ 475 ] The Shanghai Maglev Train, which reaches 431 kilometers per hour ( 268 miles per hour ), is the fastest commercial educate service in the earth. [ 476 ]
Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in chinese cities has accelerated. [ 477 ] As of January 2021, 44 chinese cities have urban mass transportation system systems in operation [ 478 ] and 39 more have metro systems approved. [ 479 ] As of 2020, China boasts the five longest metro systems in the world with the networks in Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Chengdu and Shenzhen being the largest. There were approximately 229 airports in 2017, with around 240 planned by 2020. China has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to extraneous ship. [ citation needed ] In 2017, the Ports of Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Ningbo-Zhoushan, Guangzhou, Qingdao and Tianjin ranked in the peak 10 in the world in container dealings and cargo tonnage. [ 480 ]

Water add and sanitation

Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, a well as water scarcity, contamination, and pollution. [ 481 ] According to data presented by the roast Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF in 2015, about 36 % of the rural population in China still did not have access to improved sanitation. [ 482 ] The ongoing South–North Water Transfer Project intends to abate urine dearth in the north. [ 483 ]

Demographics

A 2009 population density map of the People ‘s Republic of China and Taiwan. The easterly coastal provinces are a lot more dumbly populated than the western interior. The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People ‘s Republic of China as approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60 % of the population were 14 years erstwhile or younger, 70.14 % were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26 % were over 60 years old. [ 484 ] The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46 %. [ 485 ] China used to make up much of the populace ‘s poor people ; now it makes up much of the world ‘s middle class. [ 486 ] Although a middle-income area by westerly standards, China ‘s rapid increase has pulled hundreds of millions —800 million, to be more precise [ 487 ] —of its people out of poverty since 1978. By 2013, less than 2 % of the chinese population lived below the external poverty line of US $ 1.9 per day, down from 88 % in 1981. [ 345 ] China ‘s own standards for poverty are higher and distillery the nation is on its way to eradicate national poverty completely by 2019. [ 488 ] From 2009 to 2018, the unemployment pace in China has averaged about 4 %. [ 489 ] Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid 1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the rigid limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, peculiarly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a “ 1.5 ” -child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015 ( ethnic minorities were besides nontaxable from one child limits ). The future major relax of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an entirely child. [ 490 ] In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy. [ 491 ] Data from the 2010 census implies that the total birthrate rate may be around 1.4, although due to under-reporting of births it may be closer to 1.5–1.6. [ 492 ] According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had fiddling effect on population emergence [ 493 ] or the size of the sum population. [ 494 ] however, these scholars have been challenged. Their own counterfactual model of richness descent without such restrictions implies that China averted more than 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, a act which may reach one billion by 2060 given all the fall back descendants of births averted during the era of richness restrictions, with one-child restrictions accounting for the big bulk of that reduction. [ 495 ] The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the arouse ratio at parturition. [ 496 ] [ 497 ] According to the 2010 census, the sexual activity ratio at birth was 118.06 boys for every 100 girls, [ 498 ] which is beyond the normal rate of around 105 boys for every 100 girls. [ 499 ] The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51.27 percentage of the total population. [ 498 ] however, China ‘s sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percentage of the sum population. [ 498 ]

cultural groups

Ethnolinguistic map of China China legally recognizes 56 distinct heathen groups, who all in all comprise the Zhonghua Minzu. The largest of these nationalities are the cultural Chinese or “ Han ”, who constitute more than 90 % of the sum population. [ 500 ] The Han Chinese – the earth ‘s largest unmarried heathen group [ 501 ] – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except Tibet and Xinjiang. [ 502 ] Ethnic minorities account for less than 10 % of the population of China, according to the 2010 census. [ 500 ] Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74 %, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92 %. [ 500 ] The 2010 census recorded a sum of 593,832 extraneous nationals living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea ( 120,750 ), the United States ( 71,493 ) and Japan ( 66,159 ). [ 503 ]

Languages

There are deoxyadenosine monophosphate many as 292 living languages in China. [ 504 ] The languages most normally spoken belong to the Sinitic arm of the sino-tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin ( spoken by 70 % of the population ), [ 505 ] and other varieties of chinese terminology : Yue ( including Cantonese and Taishanese ), Wu ( including Shanghainese and Suzhounese ), Min ( including Fuzhounese, Hokkien and Teochew ), Xiang, Gan and Hakka. Languages of the Tibeto-Burman arm, including Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. other heathen minority languages in southwest China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai class, Miao and Yao of the Hmong–Mien kin, and Wa of the Austroasiatic class. Across northeastern and northwestern China, local cultural groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic languages : Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur. Korean is spoken natively along the margin with North Korea. Sarikoli, the lyric of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an indo-european linguistic process. taiwanese aborigines, including a small population on the mainland, speak austronesian languages. [ 506 ] Standard Mandarin, a kind of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the official national language of China and is used as a tongue franca in the state between people of different linguistic backgrounds. [ 507 ] [ 508 ] Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan, Zhuang and assorted early languages are besides regionally recognized throughout the area. [ 509 ] taiwanese characters have been used as the written script for the Sinitic languages for thousands of years. They allow speakers of mutually opaque chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing. In 1956, the government introduced simplify characters, which have supplanted the older traditional characters in mainland China. chinese characters are romanized using the Pinyin system. Tibetan uses an rudiment based on an indic handwriting. Uyghur is most normally written in Persian alphabet -based Uyghur Arabic alphabet. The mongol script used in China and the Manchu script are both derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet. Zhuang uses both an official Latin rudiment handwriting and a traditional chinese quality handwriting. [ citation needed ]

urbanization

China has urbanized importantly in recent decades. The percentage of the nation ‘s population surviving in urban areas increased from 20 % in 1980 to over 60 % in 2019. [ 510 ] [ 511 ] [ 512 ] It is estimated that China ‘s urban population will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population. [ 511 ] [ 512 ] China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million, [ 513 ] including the 19 megacities [ 514 ] [ 515 ] ( cities with a population of over 10 million ) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Wuhan, Harbin, Shijiazhuang, Suzhou, Hangzhou, Xi’an, Zhengzhou, Baoding, Linyi, Changsha, Dongguan and Qingdao. [ 516 ] Shanghai is China ‘s most populous urban area [ 517 ] [ 518 ] while Chongqing is its largest city proper. [ 519 ] By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants. [ 511 ] The figures in the board under are from the 2017 census, [ 520 ] and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits ; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations ( which includes suburban and rural populations ). The large “ float populations “ of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas unmanageable ; [ 521 ] the figures below include lone long-run residents. [ citation needed ]

1. ^[523] population of Hong Kong as of 2018 estimate .
2. ^Dadukou, Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, Nan’an, Beibei, Changshou, Jiangjin, Hechuan, Yongchuan, Nanchuan, Qijiang, Dazu, Bishan, Tongliang, [524] Total urban population of all 26 districts of Chongqing are up to 15,076,600. The datum of Chongqing in the list is the datum of “ Metropolitan Developed Economic Area ”, which contains two parts : “ City Proper ” and “ Metropolitan Area ”. The “ City proper ” are dwell of 9 districts : Yuzhong Yubei, & Banan, has the urban population of 5,646,300 as of 2018. And the “ Metropolitan Area ” are consist of 12 districts : Fuling Tongnan, & Rongchang, has the urban population of 5,841,700.Total urban population of all 26 districts of Chongqing are up to 15,076,600 .

education

Since 1986, compulsory department of education in China comprises primary and junior secondary coil school, which together last for nine years. [ 527 ] In 2019, approximately 89.5 percentage of students continued their education at a three-year elder secondary school. [ 528 ] The Gaokao, China ‘s national university capture examination, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percentage of secondary school graduates are enrolled in higher education. [ 529 ] [ better source needed ] This number increased importantly over the last years, reaching a third school registration of 58.42 percentage in 2020. [ 530 ] Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level. [ 531 ] More than 10 million chinese students graduated from vocational colleges nationally every year. [ 532 ] China has the largest department of education system in the world, with about 282 million students and 17.32 million full-time teachers in over 530,000 schools. [ 533 ] In February 2006, the government pledged to provide wholly loose nine-year education, including textbooks and fees. [ 534 ] Annual education investment went from less than US $ 50 billion in 2003 to more than US $ 817 billion in 2020. [ 535 ] [ 536 ] however, there remains an inequality in education spend. In 2010, the annual education consumption per secondary school scholar in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, entirely totalled ¥3,204. [ 537 ] detached compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior junior-grade school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2020, the graduation registration proportion at compulsory education level reached 95.2 percentage, exceeding average levels recorded in high-income countries, [ 533 ] and around 91.2 % of chinese have received secondary coil department of education. [ 538 ] China ‘s literacy rate has grown dramatically, from alone 20 % in 1949 and 65.5 % in 1979. [ 539 ] to 96 % of the population over age 15 in 2018. [ 540 ] In the like year, China ( Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang ) was ranked the highest in the universe in the Programme for International Student Assessment ranking for all three categories of Mathematics, Science and Reading. [ 541 ] China ranks first in the all-time decoration count at the International Mathematical Olympiad with 168 goal medals since its beginning engagement in 1985. [ 542 ] China besides ranks first in the all-time decoration count at the International Physics Olympiad, the International Chemistry Olympiad, and the International Olympiad in Informatics. [ 543 ] [ 544 ] [ 545 ] China had over 3,000 universities, with over 40 million students enrolled in mainland China. [ 546 ] [ 547 ] As of 2020, China had the worldly concern ‘s second-highest number of exceed universities. [ 548 ] [ 549 ] [ 550 ] Currently, China trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 200 universities according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities ( ARWU ). [ 551 ] China is home to the two best universities ( Tsinghua University and Peking University ) in the hale Asia – Oceania region and emerging countries according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. [ 552 ] [ 553 ] [ 554 ] Both are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elect taiwanese universities offering comprehensive examination and lead department of education. [ 555 ]

Health

The National Health and Family Planning Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the chinese population. [ 556 ] An stress on populace health and preventive medicine has characterized chinese health policy since the early on 1950s. At that clock, the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, a well as treat and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and red fever, which were previously rife in China, were about eradicated by the campaign. [ citation needed ] After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the chinese public improved quickly because of better nutrition, although many of the dislodge public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People ‘s Communes. Healthcare in China became by and large privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the politics began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision enterprise worth US $ 124 billion. [ 557 ] By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95 % of China ‘s population having basic health policy coverage. [ 558 ] In 2011, China was estimated to be the universe ‘s third-largest supplier of pharmaceuticals, but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of counterfeit medications. [ 559 ] As of 2017, the average biography anticipation at parentage in China is 76 years, [ 560 ] and the baby deathrate pace is 7 per thousand. [ 561 ] Both have improved importantly since the 1950s. [ metric ton ] Rates of acrobatics, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1 % in 1990 to 9.9 % in 2010. [ 564 ] Despite meaning improvements in health and the construction of promote medical facilities, China has respective emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution, [ 565 ] hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers, [ 566 ] and an increase in fleshiness among urban youths. [ 567 ] [ 568 ] China ‘s large population and dumbly populate cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in holocene years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained. [ 569 ] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China. [ 570 ] The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019. [ 571 ] [ 572 ] Despite this, there is no convincing scientific evidence on the virus ‘s origin, and further studies are being carried out around the worldly concern on a possible origin for the virus. [ 573 ] [ 574 ] The chinese government has been criticized for its wield of the epidemic and accused of concealing the extent of the outbreak before it became an international pandemic. [ 575 ]

religion

The politics of the People ‘s Republic of China officially espouses state atheism, [ 580 ] and has conducted antireligious campaigns to this end. [ 581 ] Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the State Administration for Religious Affairs. [ 582 ] Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China ‘s united states constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to express persecution. [ 267 ] [ 583 ] Over the millennium, taiwanese refinement has been influenced by assorted religious movements. The “ three teachings “, including Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism ( chinese Buddhism ), historically have a significant function in shaping chinese culture, [ 584 ] [ 585 ] enriching a theological and religious framework which harks spinal column to the early on Shang and Zhou dynasty. chinese popular or folk religion, which is framed by the three teachings and other traditions, [ 586 ] consists in commitment to the shen ( 神 ), a character that signifies the “ energies of coevals “, who can be deities of the environment or ancestral principles of homo groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature of speech in Chinese mythology and history. [ 587 ] Among the most democratic cults are those of Mazu ( goddess of the seas ), [ 588 ] Huangdi ( one of the two divine patriarch of the Chinese slipstream ), [ 588 ] [ 589 ] Guandi ( idol of war and business ), Caishen ( god of prosperity and profusion ), Pangu and many others. China is home plate to many of the earth ‘s tallest religious statues, including the tallest of all, the leap Temple Buddha in Henan. [ citation needed ] clear data on religious affiliation in China is difficult to gather due to varying definitions of “ religion ” and the unorganized, diffusing nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between three teachings religions and local folk music religious practice. [ 584 ] A 2015 poll conducted by Gallup International found that 61 % of taiwanese people self-identified as “ convert atheist ”, [ 590 ] though it is worthwhile to note that chinese religions or some of their strands are definable as non-theistic and humanist religions, since they do not believe that godhead creativity is wholly transcendent, but it is built-in in the world and in finical in the homo being. [ 591 ] According to a 2014 study, approximately 74 % are either non-religious or practise chinese folk music belief, 16 % are Buddhists, 2 % are Christians, 1 % are Muslims, and 8 % cling to other religions including Taoists and folk salvationism. [ 592 ] [ 593 ] In addition to Han people ‘s local religious practices, there are besides assorted heathen minority groups in China who maintain their traditional autochthone religions. The diverse family religions today comprise 2–3 % of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-identification is park within the intellectual class. significant faiths specifically connected to certain heathen groups include Tibetan Buddhism and the Islamic religion of the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and other peoples in Northwest China. [ citation needed ] The 2010 population census reported the full number of Muslims in the state as 23.14 million. [ 594 ] A 2021 poll from Ipsos and the Policy Institute at King ‘s College London found that 35 % of chinese people said there was tension between different religious groups, which was the second lowest share of the 28 countries surveyed. [ 595 ] [ 596 ]

culture

Fenghuang County, an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles. Since ancient times, chinese polish has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. For much of the country ‘s dynastic era, opportunities for sociable promotion could be provided by high operation in the esteemed imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty. [ 598 ] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural nuance in China, such as the impression that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or play. chinese polish has hanker emphasized a common sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national position. [ 599 ] Examinations and a culture of deserve remain greatly valued in China today. [ 600 ]
The first leaders of the People ‘s Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial ordain but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and progressive ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of chinese acculturation, such as rural domain tenure, sexism, and the confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the express. Some observers see the period following the institution of the PRC in 1949 as a sequel of traditional chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party ‘s rule has damaged the foundations of chinese culture, specially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional polish were destroyed, having been denounced as “ regressive and harmful ” or “ vestiges of feudalism “. many crucial aspects of traditional chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like Peking opera, [ 601 ] were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the clock. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted. [ 602 ] today, the chinese politics has accepted numerous elements of traditional chinese culture as being integral to taiwanese company. With the rise of taiwanese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, respective forms of traditional taiwanese art, literature, music, movie, fashion and computer architecture have seen a vigorous revival, [ 603 ] [ 604 ] and folk and variety artwork in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide. [ 605 ] A poll in October 2020 [ 606 ] of respondents in Spain, [ 607 ] Slovakia, [ 608 ] Latvia, [ 609 ] Serbia, [ 610 ] and Russia [ 611 ] found that majorities in those countries considered China to be “ culturally attractive ” .

tourism in China

China received 55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010, [ 612 ] and in 2012 was the third-most-visited state in the global. [ 613 ] It besides experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism ; an estimated 740 million chinese holidaymakers travelled within the area in October 2012. [ 614 ] China hosts the world ‘s second-largest act of World Heritage Sites ( 56 ) after Italy, and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world ( first gear in the Asia-Pacific ). It is forecast by Euromonitor International that China will become the world ‘s most popular address for tourists by 2030. [ 615 ]

literature

chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty. [ 616 ] Concepts covered within the chinese classic text present a broad compass of thoughts and subjects including calendar, military, astrology, herbology, geography and many others. [ 617 ] Some of the most authoritative early on text include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored course of study in dynastic earned run average. [ 618 ] Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the pitchfork ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and naturalism respectively. [ 619 ] Chinese historiography began with the Shiji, the overall setting of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the twenty-four Histories, which set a huge stage for chinese fictions along with taiwanese mythology and folklore. [ 620 ] Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, chinese classical music fiction rose to a boom of the historical, township and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber. [ 621 ] Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng, [ 622 ] it remains an enduring reservoir of popular acculturation in the East asian cultural sphere. [ 623 ] In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, taiwanese literature embarked on a new earned run average with written vernacular Chinese for average citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature. [ 624 ] Various literary genres, such as brumous poetry, scar literature, young pornographic fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism, [ 625 ] emerged following the cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature generator, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. [ 626 ]

cuisine

Map showing major regional cuisines of China taiwanese cuisine is highly divers, drawing on several millennium of culinary history and geographic kind, in which the most influential are known as the “ Eight Major Cuisines ”, including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines. [ 627 ] All of them are featured by the accurate skills of formation, heat, and flavoring. [ 628 ] [ better source needed ] Chinese cuisine is besides known for its width of cooking methods and ingredients, [ 629 ] equally well as food therapy that is emphasized by traditional chinese medicine. [ 630 ] [ better source needed ] Generally, China ‘s staple food is rice in the south, wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with kernel reserved for particular occasions. The bean products, such as bean curd and soy sauce milk, remain as a democratic informant of protein. [ 631 ] Pork is now the most popular kernel in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the nation ‘s total kernel consumption. [ 632 ] While pork dominates the kernel market, there is besides the vegetarian Buddhist cuisine and the pork-free chinese Islamic cuisine. southerly cuisine, ascribable to the area ‘s proximity to the ocean and balmy climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables ; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. numerous offshoots of taiwanese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and american Chinese food, have emerged in the nations that play host to the taiwanese diaspora. [ citation needed ]

music

chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to advanced music. chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. traditional chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bayin ( 八音 ). traditional chinese opera is a form of musical theater in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing opera and Cantonese opera. [ 633 ] taiwanese crop up ( C-Pop ) includes mandopop and cantopop. chinese blame, taiwanese hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become democratic in contemporary times. [ citation needed ]

film

Cinema was beginning introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was released in 1905. [ 634 ] China has the largest count of movie screens in the global since 2016, [ 635 ] China became the largest cinema market in the universe in 2020. [ 636 ] [ 637 ] The lead 3 highest-grossing films in China presently are Wolf Warrior 2 ( 2017 ) , Ne Zha ( 2019 ), and The Wandering Earth ( 2019 ). [ 638 ]

fashion

Hanfu is the historical clothe of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a popular chinese female dress. [ 639 ] The hanfu movement has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothe. [ 640 ]

Sports

China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the populace. There is tell that archery ( shèjiàn ) was practiced during the westerly Zhou dynasty. Swordplay ( jiànshù ) and cuju, a sport loosely related to association football [ 641 ] date back to China ‘s early dynasties as good. [ 642 ]
Go is an abstract strategy board game for two players, in which the aim is to surround more territory than the opponent and was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago. physical fitness is wide emphasized in chinese culture, with dawn exercises such as qigong and t’ai qi ch’uan widely practiced, [ 643 ] and commercial gymnasium and secret fitness clubs are gaining popularity across the country. [ 644 ] Basketball is presently the most popular spectator pump mutant in China. [ 645 ] The Chinese Basketball Association and the american National Basketball Association have a huge follow among the people, with native or heathen taiwanese players such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian held in high think of. [ 646 ] China ‘s professional football league, now known as chinese Super League, was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in Asia. [ 647 ] other popular sports in the country include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. Board games such as go ( known as wéiqí in Chinese ), xiangqi, mah-jongg, and more recently chess, are besides played at a professional level. [ 648 ] In summation, China is family to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012. [ 468 ] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat race, Mongolian-style wrestle and knight race are besides popular. [ 649 ] China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year. [ 650 ] China besides won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals. [ 651 ] [ 652 ] In 2011, Shenzhen in Guangdong, China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing ; the first nation to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city Zhangjiakou of Hebei state will besides collaboratively host the 2022 Olympic Winter Games, which will make Beijing the first city in the universe to hold both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics. [ 653 ]

See besides

Notes

References

foster reading

For a more comprehensive examination list, see Bibliography of Chinese history

government

General information

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